Week 4: Trends & Issues in IDT

Part A

Military

Over the years, the military in the United States and other developed nations have evolved into huge, technologically sophisticated, multifaceted, integrated organizations with an overwhelming number of responsibilities. The military of all nations will face a number of common challenges. Two of these challenges that may impact the role of designer are:

·         International responsibilities of a national of multinational military force

·         New technologies

The global corporate world thrives on international partnership. Designers must recognize the cultural diversity of the clients and select training of learning solutions that can accommodate dissimilar audiences.  

New technologies exist on every front, in every business, and in every home. Students share classroom experiences with children around the world via the internet. Low-cost, digital communications have placed international friends and relatives within a fingers reach. These new technologies are also available to adversaries. Using secure networks and limiting the number of applications are just two ways in which the military tries to prevent illegal access. But these security solutions may cause instructional designers to adjust the design and delivery of training products. Designers must learn to work within the system.

The challenge of each service in any country is how to best utilize the money is has available for training. In most instances, trade-off decisions must be made in order to stay within budget. A low tech training solution, such as a paper based job aid, may not be the most desirable approach, but may well be the option selected to accomplish the training task and stay within budget. The desire to utilize all capabilities of technology is a temptation that may be hard to resist, but using dollars injudiciously can quickly be the undoing of a design firm. For instructional designer, suggest new approaches to training using low and high tech methods incorporated with the mission equipment is an option that should be considered.

P-12 Education

Across all three initiatives, students in the Ed-Tech classrooms were significantly more engaged in “best practices” activities than were students in comparison groups. Included were student-centered activities such as experimental, hands-on learning, independent inquiry/research and cooperative learning requiring use of computers as a tool and the application of critical thinking skills.

After three decades of numerous well-funded technology initiatives, some impressive accomplishments are noted. Students of all economic levels have greater access to high speed internet connected with the ratio being about one computer per every four students. Some statistics reveal disappointing patterns. At the state level, 2008-2009 data show that only twenty-one states require technology coursework to receive initial teacher licensure and only 10 require technology training or testing for re-certification.

Health Care Education

Some of the most significant factors affecting performance, the development of instruction, and the application of educational technology in health care are knowledge and research, cost, and managed care, regulations and standards, and convergence.

Use of advance computing and network technologies for consulting and education currently are active areas of health science research. Recent work includes representing the entire adult human male and female anatomy digitally to provide an image library for creating educational objects and diagnostic applications, establishing a collaboratory where scientist and teachers in embryology can work together and provide distance learning online and developing immersive, virtual reality environments using 3-D images and haptic feedback for surgical planning and training.

Similar

All of these are similar to where I work because they are all incorporating technology in some form. Each of these use technology for training just like at the school district I work at. We have to use computers to do training and to learn new technology skills to incorporate into our classrooms.

Different

The military is different because it is using technology to help assist with the improvement of communications and exchange between countries. The Health Care Education is using advance computing and network technologies for consulting and education currently are active areas of health science research.

Part B

I believe that our youth can learn how to address the problems of the world if we prepare them for it. Children learn at a very young age and if we instill the necessary problem solving skills into them while they are young then by the time they are adults they will be great problem solvers. The most important thing we can do for our students is educate them and encourage them to be the best that they can be. I think the education system always has room for improvement especially when it comes to educating the students on things they need to know about the world. Education should incorporate more world education and issues in the world because these things are important to know and we shouldn’t send out young students into the world blind as adults. I also believe that practices in Europe and Asia could be incorporated into the U.S education system because every county does different things and there isn’t anything wrong with sharing and incorporating what someone else is doing. I believe this would make out students culturally diverse and well rounded.

Reference:

Reiser , R. A. & Dempsey, J. V. (2002).Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill/Prentice Hall, c2002

Week 3: Evaluating Programs & Human Performance

1). Evaluation is the process of determining the merit, worth and value of things, and evaluations are the products of that process (Dempsey & Reiser). Evaluation is the making of a judgment about the amount, number, or value of something, or an assessment. An assessment is the evaluation or estimation of the nature, quality, or ability of someone or something. So both assessment and evaluation is entangled into one definition of being able to reflect on the quality of ones learning’s.

Many evaluation models were developed in the 1970s and 1980s. These evaluation models were to have a profound impact on how designers would come to use the evaluation process. The new models were used on projects that included extensive development work, multiple organizations and agencies, and multiple forms of instructional delivery. These projects had multiple goals that were to be achieved over time. Examples were teacher corps projects aimed at reforming teacher education and math projects that attempted to redefine what and how children learned about mathematics. These projects often employed new models of evaluation. Perhaps the most influential model of that era was the CIPP model developed by Stufflebeam in 1971(Dempsey & Reiser).

Stufflebeam’s CIPP evaluation model stands for context, input, process, and product. These are four distinct type of evaluation, and they all can be done in a single comprehensive evaluation or a single type can be done as a stand-alone evaluation. Context evaluation is the assessment of the environment in which an innovation or program will be used to determine the need and objectives for the innovation and to identify the factors in the environment that will impact the success of its use. This analysis is frequently called a needs assessment, and it is used in making program planning decisions. According to stufflebeams CIPP model the evaluator should be present from the beginning of the project, and should assist in the conduct of the needs assessment (Dempsey & Reiser).

The second step or component of the CIPP model is input evaluation. Here evaluation questions are raised about the resources that will be used to develop and conduct the innovation/program. The third step or component of CIPP is process and evaluation. This corresponds closely to formative evaluation. The process evaluation is used to examine the ways in which an innovation/program is being developed, the way it is implemented, and the initial effectiveness, and effectiveness after revisions. The fourth and final component of CIPP is a product evaluation, which focuses on the success of the innovation/program in producing the desired outcomes. Product evaluation includes measuring the outcome variables specified in the program objectives, identifying unintended outcomes, assessing program merit, and conducting cost analyses. Product evaluation is used when making summative evaluation decisions (Dempsey & Reiser).

Rossi’s five domain evaluation model started in the late 1970s and is continuing today. Peter Rossi and his colleagues developed this model. According to this model, each evaluation should be tailored to fit local needs, resources, and type of program. The Rossi model emphasizes five primary evaluation domains.  First is needs assessment. A need is the gap between the actual and desired state of affairs. Second is program theory assessment. If the program is not based on sound social, psychological, and educational theory, it cannot be expected to work. Third is implementation assessment. If a program is not properly operated and delivered, it has no chance of succeeding. The fourth evaluation domain is synonymous with the traditional social science model of evaluation, and the fifth domain is synonymous with the economic model of evaluation. The fourth domain is impact assessment, which is cause and effect of the assessment. The fifth domain is efficiency assessment, which checks if the assessment is cost effective (Dempsey & Reiser).

Kirkpatrick’s training evaluation model was published initially in four articles in 1959. Kirkpatrick’s training evaluation model has four levels. Level one is reaction. The first level is the assessment of learner’s reactions or attitudes towards the learning experience. Anonymous questionnaires should be used to get honest reactions from learners about the training. Level two is learning. In the second level evaluation, the goal is to determine what the participants in the training program learned. Level three is behavior. In the third level the evaluator’s goal is to determine whether the training program participants change their on-the-job behavior. Level four is results. In the fourth level the evaluator’s goal is to find out if the training leads to final results which include outcomes that affect the performance of the organization (Dempsey & Reiser).

Brinkerhoff’s success case method is a specialized model that focuses on finding out what about a training or other organizational interventions work. The SCM follows five steps. First you focus and plan the success case study. Second, construct a visual impact model. Third, conduct a survey research study to identify the best cases and the worst cases. Fourth, schedule and conduct in-depth interviews, usually via telephone for approximately forty-five minutes per interview (Dempsey & Reiser).

Patton’s utilization-focused evaluation was constructed by Michael Patton in the 1970s. The U-FE follows several steps. Because U-FE is a participatory evaluation approach, the client and primary users will be actively involved in structuring, conducting and using the evaluation and its results. There are nine major steps. Step one, conduct a readiness assessment; step two, identify the primary intended users and develop a working relationship with them; step three, conduct a situational analysis; step four, identify the primary intended users; step five. focus the evaluation; step six, design the evaluation; step seven, collect, analyze, and interpret the evaluation data; step eight, continually facilitate evaluation use; step nine, conduct a meta-evaluation (Dempsey & Reiser).

2). Evaluation is often looked at from four different levels listed below. Note that the farther down the list, the more valid the evaluation.

• Reaction - What does the learner feel about the training?
• Learning - What facts, knowledge, etc., did the learner gain?
• Behaviors - What skills did the learner develop, that is, what new information is the learner using on the job?

Results or effectiveness - What results occurred, that is, did the learner apply the new skills to the necessary tasks in the organization and, if so, what results were achieved?

3). A performance problem that I have in my area of work is that my students don’t have any motivation to read. I have students that have the potential to read but they have no drive to learn. They don’t practice at home because their parents don’t encourage them. I believe using incentives to help motivate students to read would be an excellent gesture for a non-instructional solution. For first grade we had free pizza incentives and treasure box incentives if they read so many books and it really helps encourage their reading practice at home.

Reference:

Reiser , R. A. & Dempsey, J. V. (2002).Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill/Prentice Hall, c2002

Week 2:Theories & Models of Learning & Instruction

1). Epistemology is a branch of philosophy addressing knowledge-how we know. What it means to know. Postmodern critique challenges stories and assumptions underlying out theories, ideas, and practices (Reiser & Dempsey 2002). Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope. Epistemology is the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion.

Instructional methods are ways that information is presented to students. Such methods fall into two categories: teacher-centered approaches and student- centered approaches. There is not one "best" approach to instruction. Some goals are better suited to teacher-centered approaches while others clearly need student-centered approaches. Teacher-centered approaches include instruction where the teacher's role is to present the information that is to be learned and to direct the learning process of students. The teacher identifies the lesson objectives and takes the primary responsibility for guiding the instruction by explanation of the information and modeling. This is followed by student practice. Methods that fall into the teacher-centered approaches include demonstration, direct instruction, lecture and lecture-discussions (O’Bannon 2012).

A theory is a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained. Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. According to Reiser & Demspsey(2002) Gagne was primarily concerned with instruction and how what is known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction. He proposed an integrated and comprehensive theory of instruction that is based primarily on two foundations: cognitive information processing theory and Gagne’s own observations of effective teachers in the classroom.

According to Reiser & Demspsey(2002) there are five major categories of learning. The five major categories are:

1.    Verbal information, knowing “that” or “what”

2.    Intellectual skills, applying knowledge

3.    Cognitive strategies, employing effective ways of learning and thinking

4.    Attitudes, feelings, and beliefs that govern choices of personal action

5.    Motor skills, executing precise, smooth and accurately timed movements

2). There are three contrasting epistemic stances: positivist, relativist, and contextualist. Positivists believe that the only truth or knowledge is objective truth. Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that positive knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations. Thus, information derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason and logic, forms the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge (Wiki, Positivism 2016). Relativists don’t believe that objective truth is possible and that all knowledge is subjective to perception or relative to a particular frame of reference. Relativism is the concept that points of view have no absolute truth or validity within themselves, but rather only relative, subjective value according to differences in perception and consideration (Wiki, Relativism 2016). Contextualists believe that truth or knowledge is relative to context rather than individual, subjective understanding. In epistemology, contextualism is the treatment of the word 'knows' as context-sensitive. Context-sensitive expressions are ones that "express different propositions relative to different contexts of use (Wiki, Contextualism 2016).

I believe that my stance would be primarily closer to positivism. Positivism is information derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason and logic, forms the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge. Students have to have reason and logic when they are learning. Knowledge is facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. With knowledge comes reason and logic which is all a part of the learning process. I can’t recall any conflicts that I have had with any of the above stances.

          3). Constructivism sees learning as a process of construction or making something. Constructivism says that people learn by making sense of the world, they make meaning out of what they encounter. Constructivism is centering instruction around a key statement of problem, prompting team-based inquiry and problem solving process (Reiser & Demspsey2002). Behaviorist researchers argued that problem solving was a reproductive process; that is, organisms faced with a problem applied behavior that had been successful on a previous occasion. Successful behavior was itself believed to have been arrived at through a process of trial-and-error.

            Both of these help learner motivation because learners use different technique and ways to solve problems. Problem solving is the process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues. Solving problems is a process of thinking and doing. Learners have to learn skills help find solutions to problems.

 Reference:

O’Bannon, B. (2012). Planning for Instruction: Instructional Method. Retrieved from http://edtech2.tennessee.edu/projects/bobannon/in_strategies.html

Reiser , R. A. & Dempsey, J. V. (2002). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill/Prentice Hall, c2002

Wikipedia. (2016). Contextualists. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextualism 

Wikipedia. (2016). Positivism. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism

Wikipedia. (2016). Relativism. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism 

Week 1: Defining the Field

1). My definition of instructional technology is using computers, smart boards ipads and any other electronics to help assist in teaching and the improvement of learning of students. My experiences taking educational courses, teaching and attending educational workshops has helped to shape my definition of instructional technology. My definition hasn’t changed but I did realize that my definition is similar to the some of the definitions in the book. By reviewing all the definitions in the book and reviewing my own definition I can conclude that my definition and the book definition have a lot in common. Both definitions state that the use of technology can be used to help improve learning experiences for students.

            “Early definitions of instructional technology focused on instructional media, the physical means of via which instruction is presented to learners (p. 1). In 1963, the first definition to be approved by the major professional organization within the field of educational technology was published, and it too indicated that the field was simply about media (p. 2).” The 1970 definition states that instructional technology is “media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside teacher, textbook, and blackboard. The pieces that make up instructional technology include television, overhead projectors, computers, and other items of hardware and software (p. 2).” Seven years later in 1977 the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) revised a new definition of instructional technology. The definition reflects that “educational technology is a complex, integrated process involving people procedures, ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluation, and managing solutions to those problems involved in all aspects of human learning (p. 3).” During 1994 the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) published a book called Instructional Technology: The Definitions and Domains of the Field. This book contained a detailed and concise definition of instructional technology that stated “instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning (p. 3).”

The latest definition was established in 2008 by the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) committee. “Educational technology is the study an ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources (p. 4).”

2). The six characteristics of instructional design that should be presented in all instructional design efforts are:

1.    Instructional design is student centered.

2.    Instructional design is goal oriented.

3.    Instructional design focuses on meaningful performance.

4.    Instructional design assumes outcomes can be measured in a reliable and valid way.

5.    Instructional design is empirical, iterative, and self-correcting.

6.    Instructional design typically is a team effort.

In each of my lessons I believe they consist of the six characteristics of instructional design. I make sure that my lessons are student centered. When I taught a lesson about measurement, I would ask the students do they know what measurement is then I would give them the definition after a few of them would give me their responses. Then I would let them share their measurement experiences with me if they had any after I gave the definition. Each of my lessons have goals, for instance, my measurement lesson goal was for all students to be able to understand and know what measurement is and to be able to use measurement tools like inch tiles, paper clips and linking cubes. Meaning performance would be me demonstrating to the students how to use the measurement tools. I measure outcome by letting the students work a few problems alone to see who needs more assistance. I give students a chance to self-correct themselves by informing them they might need to recheck an answer before I give them the answer. During each of my lessons I do whole group learning then sometimes I will break them into small groups or partners to learn as well. This is how I incorporate the six characteristics of instructional design.

3). Media is the main means of mass communication like television, radio, newspapers, and the Internet. I believe teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks are all instructional media, because instructional media is materials use to teach or communicate knowledge to students. The teacher relays information to the students by speaking or by writing information on a chalk board. People who write textbooks are relaying knowledge and information through their writings for others to read and media is all about different forms of communication. Yes, I believe the purpose of instructional design is to incorporate media into instruction. Teachers need different forms of media to help communicate their lessons to the students because not all students are able to understand the lesson from just a textbook, they have to watch videos or see it written on the whiteboard as well.

Reference:

Reiser , R. A. & Dempsey, J. V. (2002). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill/Prentice Hall, c2002.